Gender pay gap - pay (in)equality
According to figures from the Federal Statistical Office, women in Germany earned an average of 18% less than men in 2023. In terms of gross hourly pay, women received an average of 20,84€, while men received 25,30€ (see Federal Statistical Office 2024b). This gender-specific pay gap is referred to as the "gender pay gap". At EU level, the average gender pay gap in 2022 was 12 %. Only in Estonia, Austria and the Czech Republic is the gender pay gap even greater than in Germany ( Federal Statistical Office 2024a).
Factors influencing pay inequality
Various factors are considered to be the causes of the pay gap, which can be attributed to structural inequalities, barriers and discrimination in the labor market:
Women are less likely to work in management positions than men and are less likely to climb the corporate hierarchy ("glass ceiling"). This is referred to as vertical segregation (Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency 2024a). By 2023, for example, there were more members named "Thomas" or "Michael" on German management boards than there were women in total. The stock exchange boards continue to consist of 83% men (Allbright Foundation).
Leaky pipeline effect in science
The proportion of women in science also decreases with increasing qualification level, even though the proportion of women has steadily increased at all scientific career levels in recent years: in 2023, women were 53% more likely to complete a university degree than men and, at 46%, almost half of doctoral degrees. After the doctorate, however, a drop in the proportion of women can be seen, as only 37% complete a habilitation. The proportion of women at the career levels of full-time professorships also falls with increasing career level. In Germany, the proportion of female professors was 29% in 2022, with the lowest proportion of women in engineering at 16% and the highest at 43% in the humanities (see Federal Statistical Office 2024c).
Young people's study and career choices are heavily influenced by stereotypical role models and men and women are unequally represented in sectors and professions on the labor market. This is referred to as horizontal segregation (Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency 2024a). In male-dominated sectors (technical professions or in the STEM field), higher wages are often paid than in female-dominated sectors (such as healthcare or nursing). One of the reasons for this is that typical "female occupations" are systematically undervalued when it comes to job evaluation and wage determination (Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency 2024d) or the higher degree of academization of "typically male" occupations (DIW 2016).
Women take on a higher proportion of unpaid care work, interrupt their gainful employment and work part-time more often than men (Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency 2024b). In 2018, 48% of employed women worked part-time, compared to only eleven percent of men (Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency 2024c). Time use surveys show that although the gender care gap, i.e. the gap in the amount of time men and women spend on unpaid care work per week, has narrowed in the last decade, women still spend around 30 hours per week on care work, while men only spend around 21 hours. The gender care gap is therefore 44% (BMFSFJ 2024). There is also a trend towards greater male participation in parental leave - but it remains unevenly distributed: Only 26% of parental allowance recipients were men in 2022 and fathers' parental leave was significantly shorter at an average of 3.6 months compared to that of mothers (14.6 months on average) (Suhr, 2023).
Adjusted gender pay gap
According to the Federal Statistical Office, even if the aforementioned structural factors are factored out, an adjusted gender pay gap of 6 % remains. This unexplained residual gap reflects the pay gap between men and women in comparable work situations (sector, qualifications, career level and scope of employment).
Unfortunately, it is not yet possible to take all wage-relevant influences into account in the calculation, as the data does not include information on career breaks (e.g. parental leave). According to the Federal Statistical Office, "the value must not be equated with pay discrimination, but is therefore regarded as the 'upper limit' for pay discrimination" (Federal Statistical Office 2024b).
Gender pay gap at universities in NRW
The Gender Report 2022 published by the Netzwerk Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung NRW shows that pay inequality is also an issue for universities. In 2020, female professors at universities in North Rhine-Westphalia received an average gross salary of 514 € less than their male colleagues, meaning that the adjusted gender pay gap was 6.5 % (Kortendiek et al. 2022b).
The gender pay gap among female professors is influenced, for example, by subject affiliation, age and type of university. Above all, however, the W salary system with its unequal payment of benefits contributes significantly to the gender pay gap among professors. In their analysis, the authors of the Gender Report assume that the W salary system introduced in 2005 with its variable remuneration components (performance-related pay) favors pay differences by gender compared to the C salary system. The W salary scale contains fixed basic salaries for W 2 and W 3 professorships, which are significantly lower than the C salary scale. The basic salary can be supplemented by performance-related and personally negotiable salary components. In addition, family allowances are possible and a pro rata annual special payment (Christmas bonus) is allocated (TU Dortmund University 2022, p. 24).
In 2020, female professors in the W 3 salary group received an average of 588 € less in performance-related pay than male professors. In the W 2 salary group, the difference in earnings has become smaller at 93 € (Kortendiek et al. 2022a, p. 93f.). Several facts can be used to explain this difference, including the fact that men are represented more frequently than average in the higher salary groups W 3/C 4 and therefore their basic salary is higher on average or that the family allowance is usually higher for men than for women because professors have more children and/or are married more frequently than female professors. Individual allowances such as capital-forming benefits and the general allowance are hardly significant in terms of numbers (see TU Dortmund University 2022, p. 25).
Gender pay gap at TU Dortmund University
With regard to TU Dortmund University, surprising results can be seen: At TU Dortmund University, the gender pay gap in the W 3 salary is significantly below the national average (in 2020, female professors were paid an average of 250 € less) and in the W 2 salary there is a gender pay gap in favor of female professors (in 2020, they received an average of 11 € more). This is also due to the fact that TU Dortmund University has had regulations in place for many years that define the award criteria and, in some cases, the amount of performance-related pay, thus counteracting the structural disadvantages of female professors described above (TU Dortmund University, p. 27; Kortendiek et al. 2022a, p. 114).
The Equal Pay Day
Equal Pay Day is the day of the year that draws attention to gender-specific pay inequalities. It symbolizes the date up to which women would not be paid at all from the beginning of the year if they received the same average hourly wage as men during the rest of the year.
The Equal Pay Day originated in the USA. In 1988, the American "Business and Professional Women (BPW)" created a symbol for the red numbers in women's wallets with the "Red Purse Campaign". BPW Germany took up this idea and launched the "Red Purse Initiative" in 2008, which laid the foundation for the nationwide introduction of Equal Pay Day (qual Pay Day, n.d.).
Dortmund Equal Pay Day Alliance
The TU Dortmund University is part of the Equal Pay Day campaign alliance of the city of Dortmund. The more than 40 member organizations jointly plan various events for the day of action and thus set an example for equal pay for men and women. Equal Pay Day in Dortmund is coordinated centrally by the city's Equal Opportunities Office.
An intersectional view of pay inequality
Pay inequality does not only exist between genders; other diversity categories such as class, ethnicity, sexual orientation or disability also lead to pay gaps. The issue of pay (in)equality and discrimination in the labor market must therefore be viewed more intersectionally. In addition to calculating the gender pay gap, there are attempts to calculate pay inequalities based on other or additional forms of discrimination. However, there is still a lack of meaningful data. First attempts are presented below.
While social class has a demonstrably large influence on the professional success and income of all people (class pay gap), a European study also found that a low social class has a more negative impact on the career path and pay gap of male graduates of business schools than for female graduates. The gender class pay gap is therefore in favor of women (see Reiss et al. 2023).
The Migration Pay Gap (also known as the Immigrant Wage Gap) examines the connection between immigration and gender: Figures from 2008 show that German female citizens with a history of migration earned 14.8% less than German female citizens without a history of migration, while the difference for men was 16.5%. Adjusted for explanatory structural causes, this figure is almost the same, which indicates discrimination against migrants. Compared to men with German citizenship, men without German citizenship earned 11% less; for women, the difference was 20% (see Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency 2024e).
The IQ funding program examined the migrant gender pay gap in 2022 and a current analysis from 2024 examined salary differences for employees from countries of asylum and in bottleneck occupations in particular.
More on the findings on the migrant gender pay gap.
To date, there have been hardly any findings on the sexuality pay gap in Germany. However, an initial analysis of the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) assumes a pay gap of 5 to 15 % between heterosexual and homosexual or bisexual men. These calculations are not yet available for women. However, it is likely that they are also affected by the sexuality pay gap. This is despite the fact that lesbian, gay and bisexual people achieve higher educational qualifications on average than heterosexual people (see DIW Berlin 2017).
No figures are yet available for Germany on gender-specific pay inequality for trans* people. A study from the Netherlands was able to show that the hourly wage of trans*women fell by 12% after transitioning, but remained the same for trans*men (Geijtenbeek & Plug, 2015). For the US, it is known that the salary difference between trans* and cis people with the same or higher level of education is around 32% (cf. Baboolall et al. 2021). Even if there is not (yet) a detailed and conclusive database on gender-related pay inequality for trans* people, some studies have shown discrimination against trans* people in the labor market. For example, another Dutch study shows that around 8% of trans* people who live openly with their transition in the workplace are dismissed or threatened with dismissal (Vennix, 2010, p.36). Furthermore, in the same study, 59% of unemployed and 44% of working trans* people stated that they felt discriminated against in their working life due to their transition (Vennix, 2010, p.96).
The pay inequality of people with disabilities(disability pay gap) is a much-discussed topic in Germany - for two reasons: On the one hand, an international study by the International Labor Organization shows that the pay gap for people with disabilities compared to people without disabilities is around 12% (ILO, 2024). On the other hand, many people with disabilities in Germany work in workshops. Here, they often earn an average of 222 euros per month for a full-time job (Lebenshilfe).
Forms of discrimination often do not act alone on the intersectional pay gaps and they reinforce each other. A few years ago, Aktion Mensch drew attention to the fact that women with disabilities in particular experience double discrimination in the labor market. For example, they earn less and are less likely to be admitted to full-time jobs or management positions (Aktion Mensch, 2021). The migrant gender pay gap also shows the same thing
1 This term means that "being a migrant" is not a factual condition, but that people are discursively made into migrants or ascribed this characteristic. On this: Sow, Noah: "Sprachgebrauch in der Causa Özil: Über 'Herkunftsdeutsche' (argh) und 'Migrationshintergrund' (doppel-argh)". Noah Sow Blog, 24.07.2018, last accessed 19.10.2020.
Sources
Action for people. (2021). Situation of women with severe disabilities in the labor market. SINUS. Retrieved on 18.02.2025.
Allbright Foundation (n.d.): Facts. Retrieved on 10.09.2024.
Ananian, Sevane & Dellaferrera, Giulia (2024): A study on the employment and wage outcome of People with disability. International Labor Organization ILO.
Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (2024a): Segregation, horizontal and vertical. Retrieved on 10.09.2024.
Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (2024b): Part-time. Retrieved on 10.09.2024.
Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (2024c): Equal treatment of the sexes in working life. Retrieved on 09.01.2025.
Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (2024d): Women's occupations. Retrieved on 10.09.2024.
Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (2024e): Migration Pay Gap. Retrieved on 18.09.2024.
Baboolall, David; Greenberg, Sarah, Obeid, Maurice and Zucker, Jill (2021): Being transgender at work. McKinsey Quarterly. Retrieved on 18.09.2024.
Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (BMFSFJ) (2024): Gender Care Gap - an indicator for equality. Retrieved on 18.09.2024.
DIW Berlin (2016): Gross hourly earnings in typical female occupations in 2014 on average eight euros - or 9% - lower than in typical male occupations. Retrieved on 18.09.2024.
DIW Berlin (2017): The life situation of lesbians, gays and bisexuals: Population-representative findings on diversity in Germany. Retrieved on 18.09.2024.
Equal Pay Day (n.d.): History of Equal Pay Day in Germany. Retrieved on 18.09.2024.
Geijtenbeek, Lydia & Plug, Erik (2015): Is There a Penalty for Becoming a Woman? Is There a Pre-mium for Becoming a Man? Evidence from a Sample of Transsexual Workers. IZA Institute of Labor Ecoomics.
Kortendiek, Beate/Mense, Lisa/Beaufays, Sandra/Bünnig, Jenny/Hendrix, Ulla/Herrmann, Jeremia/Mauer, Heike/Niegel, Jennifer (2022a): Gender-Report 2022. gender (in)equity at North Rhine-Westphalian universities. University developments, gender equality practices, inequalities in the mid-level faculty. Studies Network Women's and Gender Studies NRW, No. 39. Essen.
Kortendiek, Beate/Mense, Lisa/Beaufays, Sandra/Bünnig, Jenny/Hendrix, Ulla/Herrmann, Jeremia/Mauer, Heike/Niegel, Jennifer (2022b): Gender Report 2022 - Executive Summary. Gender (in)equity at North Rhine-Westphalian universities. University developments, gender equality practices, inequalities in the mid-level faculty. Studies Network Women's and Gender Studies NRW, No. 40. Essen.
Lebenshilfe: What money do I get if I am employed in a workshop (WfbM)? Retrieved on 20.01.2025.
Reiss, Lea Katharina Reiss; Schiffinger, Michael; Rapp, Marco Leander and Mayrhofer, Wolfgang (2023): Intersectional income inequality: a longitudinal study of class and gender effects on careers. In: Culture and Organization.
Federal Statistical Office (2025): Gender pay gap falls from 18% to 16% in 2024 compared to the previous year. Retrieved on 18.02.2025.
Federal Statistical Office (2024a): Gender Pay Gap 2023: Germany remains one of the EU laggards. Retrieved on 10.09.2024.
Federal Statistical Office (2024b): Gender Pay Gap 2023: How is the gender pay gap surveyed and calculated? Retrieved on 19.09.2024.
Federal Statistical Office (2024c): 29% share of women among professors in 2023. Last accessed on 29.01.2025.
Suhr, F. (2023): Parental leave still unequally distributed. Retrieved on 10.09.2024.
Dortmund University of Technology (2022): Framework concept 2022 to 2026: Equality at the Technical University of Dortmund. Retrieved on 18.09.2024.
Vennix, Paul. (2010). "Transgenders en werk. Een onderzoek naar de arbeidssituatie van transgen-ders in Nederland en Vlaanderen", Rutgers Nisso Groep, Utrecht, 201; cited in Franzen & Sauer.